Ancient Variants, New Insights: The Western Text of Acts Explained

"And we, brethren, being torn away from you for a short time, in presence, not in heart, endeavored more eagerly to see your face with great desire. Therefore we wanted to come to you---even I, Paul, time and again---but Satan hindered us because we wished to come to you once and again, but the Lord spoke to Paul by night, 'Do not be afraid, but speak and do not be silent, because I have many people in this city.'"

If you've studied 1 Thessalonians 2:17-18, you might be startled by the italicized text---it doesn't appear in your Bible. Yet this expansion, found in Codex Bezae's version of Acts 18:9-10, creates a direct connection between Paul's ministry struggles and divine encouragement that mainstream texts keep separate. This is just one example of how the Western Text of Acts transforms our understanding of familiar biblical narratives.

While most ministers work from translations based on the Alexandrian text tradition, the Western Text of Acts---preserved primarily in the fifth-century Codex Bezae Cantabrigiensis---presents a significantly different version of the early church's history. Running approximately 8% to 10% longer than other manuscripts, these expansions and variations are not mere copying errors but potentially represent an alternate stream of early Christian tradition.

Understanding the Western Text and Its Significance

When we talk about the "Western Text" of Acts, we are referring to a distinct textual tradition that differs substantially from the more familiar versions found in most modern Bibles. This is not just a matter of occasional word variations or minor grammatical differences. Instead, the Western Text represents an alternative stream of textual transmission with its own consistent characteristics.

What is the Western Text?

The Western Text is characterized by expansions, harmonizations, and theological emphases that reflect early Christian concerns. These are not random elaborations but follow discernible patterns that suggest intentional editorial activity. The Western Text frequently clarifies ambiguous passages, adds vivid narrative details, and occasionally shows theological adjustments that reflect early Christian priorities.

One striking feature is the text's presentation style. It seems less concerned with preserving the exact wording of the original and more interested in communicating its substance in a resonant way. This "free" approach to textual transmission leads to a version that runs longer than the Alexandrian text tradition found in most modern translations.[1]

Codex Bezae: The Primary Witness

The Western Text's principal witness is Codex Bezae Cantabrigiensis (designated as "D" in critical apparatuses), a fifth-century manuscript housed at Cambridge University. This remarkable bilingual codex contains the Gospels and Acts in both Greek and Latin on facing pages. What makes Bezae especially valuable is that it preserves the Western Text of Acts nearly completely.[2]

Codex Bezae contains numerous unique readings not found in other manuscripts. Its distinctive character has fascinated scholars for centuries, as it presents a version of Acts that seems to reflect early church traditions that developed independently from the mainstream text.

Beyond Bezae: Other Western Text Witnesses

The Western textual tradition isn't limited to Codex Bezae alone. We find evidence of Western readings in several other sources:

• Fragmentary papyri: Certain early papyrus manuscripts like P29, P38, and P48 contain readings that align with Western text characteristics.

• Old Latin versions: Early Latin translations of the New Testament often preserve Western readings, including manuscripts like Codex Laudianus (E) and the Latin side of Codex Bezae itself.

• Patristic citations: Early church fathers, particularly those writing in the Western part of the Roman Empire, frequently quote from texts that reflect Western readings. Writers like Irenaeus, Tertullian, and Cyprian provide important evidence for Western Text circulation in the second and third centuries.

The geographical diversity of these witnesses challenges the simplistic notion that the Western Text was confined to the western Mediterranean. Recent scholarship suggests that these readings had wider circulation throughout early Christianity than previously acknowledged.[3]

Western Text vs. Byzantine Text: Quick Reference

To better understand the Western Text, it's helpful to compare it with another major textual tradition, the Byzantine Text, which underlies the King James Version and many traditional translations:

How Many Variants Exist in the Western Tradition in Acts?

According to the Editio Critica Maior (ECM), there are approximately 7,600 total variation units in Acts. Of these, 494 passages show a clear Byzantine vs. Alexandrian distinction (B-D passages). Across the book of Acts, hundreds of distinct Western-type variants appear, representing significant differences in wording, content, and theological emphasis.

Scholarly Journey: From Rejection to Reconsideration

Scholarly attitudes toward the Western Text have evolved dramatically over time. In the 19th century, with the discovery of important Alexandrian manuscripts like Codex Sinaiticus and Codex Vaticanus, the Western Text was largely dismissed as a corrupt, secondary development. Influential text critics like Westcott and Hort categorized Western readings as interesting but generally unreliable embellishments.[4]

The mid-20th century saw a shift in this perspective. Scholars like Albert C. Clark began arguing that in some cases, the Western Text might preserve earlier readings than the Alexandrian tradition. Eldon Jay Epp's work on anti-Judaic tendencies in the Western Text of Acts (1966) highlighted how these variants could reveal theological developments in early Christianity.[5]

The most recent phase of scholarship has moved away from viewing text-types as monolithic entities. The pioneering work of the Editio Critica Maior project and the use of the Coherence-Based Genealogical Method (CBGM) have encouraged evaluation of each variant on its own merits rather than by text-type association. Scholars like Jenny Read-Heimerdinger and Josep Rius-Camps have published multi-volume commentaries arguing for the literary and theological coherence of the Bezan text of Acts.[6]

How New Methodologies Challenge Old Assumptions

The shift in textual criticism approaches has fundamentally changed how scholars evaluate both Western and Byzantine texts:

Key Features of the Western Text of Acts

The Western Text of Acts is not simply a variant with occasional differences---it displays consistent characteristics that suggest deliberate editorial shaping. Understanding these features helps us recognize Western readings and appreciate their significance for biblical study.

Narrative Expansions and Added Details

The most immediately noticeable feature of the Western Text is its tendency toward expansion. Many passages include additional information that fills narrative gaps or elaborates on existing content. For example, in Acts 12:10, the standard text tells us that Peter, escaping from prison, and the angel "went down the seven steps" before parting---a vivid detail absent from other manuscripts. These expansions often add geographical settings, clarify motivations, or provide background information that helps readers better visualize the scene.[7]

Harmonization and Theological Clarification

Western readings frequently harmonize apparent discrepancies within Acts or between Acts and other New Testament writings. When the standard text contains ambiguities or theological tensions, the Western Text often resolves them through additional explanatory material. In Acts 15:20 and 15:29, the Apostolic Decree to Gentile believers shows significant variation. While most manuscripts prohibit "things polluted by idols, fornication, things strangled, and blood," the Western Text omits "things strangled" and adds the Golden Rule in negative form ("whatever you don't want done to yourselves, don't do to others"), shifting the decree's focus from ritual to moral concerns.[8]

The "Free" Approach to Transmission

Unlike the more conservative approach of other textual traditions, the Western Text exhibits what scholars call a "free" attitude toward textual transmission. This does not mean scribes changed text arbitrarily, but rather that they felt more liberty to incorporate explanatory material and traditional interpretations into the text itself. This approach reflects a time when the boundary between text and interpretive tradition was more fluid than we might assume today.[9]

Resolution of Ambiguities

When the standard text leaves questions unanswered, the Western Text often provides solutions. In Acts 16:35-39, where the magistrates in Philippi send to release Paul and Silas from prison, the Western Text supplies their motivation: "they remembered the earthquake that had happened" and were afraid. This addition connects the magistrates' actions directly to the supernatural events of the previous night, filling a logical gap in the narrative flow.[10]

From Fixed Text-Types to Evolving Texts

Our understanding of how biblical texts developed has undergone significant transformation in recent decades. This shift affects how we approach the Western Text and interpret its significance.

Traditional Text-Type Categories

For generations, New Testament textual criticism operated with a framework of distinct "text-types"---primarily Alexandrian, Western, and Byzantine. The Alexandrian text (represented by manuscripts like Codex Sinaiticus and Vaticanus) was considered closest to the original, the Western text (exemplified by Codex Bezae) was viewed as an interesting but heavily edited version, and the Byzantine text (underlying the Textus Receptus and King James Version) was dismissed as a late, conflated form.

These categories provided a convenient framework but increasingly proved too rigid to account for the complex manuscript evidence.[11]

Hyttinen's "Evolving Text" Theory

Finnish scholar Pasi Hyttinen's 2019 work represents a paradigm shift in how we understand textual transmission of the Western Text. Rather than seeing the Western Text as a single, consistent entity, Hyttinen argues for understanding it as an "evolving text"---a tradition that developed gradually through multiple stages of adaptation and interpretation.

This perspective recognizes that Western readings emerged through a complex process rather than a single editorial intervention. Different communities adapted and expanded the text to address their specific pastoral and theological concerns, leading to the diverse Western witnesses we now possess.[12]

Western Text as an Evolving Tradition

Viewing the Western Text as an evolving tradition helps explain the diversity among Western witnesses. While they share characteristic features, Western manuscripts do not always agree with each other. Some expansions appear in Codex Bezae but not in Old Latin manuscripts, while certain patristic citations preserve Western readings unknown in other sources.

This evolving understanding suggests that the Western Text was not created at a single moment but developed over centuries as communities engaged with and interpreted apostolic traditions.[13]

Byzantine-Western Relationship

The relationship between the Byzantine and Western text forms has undergone significant reassessment in recent years, challenging longstanding assumptions about textual development in the New Testament.

Rethinking Byzantine Dismissal

For more than a century, the Byzantine text---which underlies the Textus Receptus and King James Version---was largely dismissed in scholarly circles as a late, secondary development. This view, cemented by Westcott and Hort's influential work in the late 19th century, characterized Byzantine readings as conflated, harmonized, and of little value for establishing the original text. Scholars treated the Byzantine tradition as essentially derivative, presuming it emerged centuries after the Alexandrian and Western texts.[14]

New Perspectives on Old Evidence

Recent scholarship has begun to reassess the traditional dismissal of Byzantine readings. Some textual critics, including Maurice Robinson and William Pierpont, have argued that certain Byzantine readings deserve consideration as potentially early. The "Byzantine Priority" perspective suggests that the Byzantine text preserves ancient readings that may have been altered in other text-forms.

While this remains a minority position among scholars, the Text und Textwert analysis project directed by the Institut für neutestamentliche Textforschung has shown that the relationship between textual traditions is more complex than previously recognized. Rather than representing entirely separate streams of transmission, there is evidence suggesting interaction between different textual traditions throughout their development.[15]

Stunning Examples of Western Text Variants

The theoretical discussions of textual traditions become concrete when we examine specific examples. The following Western Text variants in Acts illustrate how these readings can transform our understanding of familiar passages.

The Apostolic Decree (Acts 15:20, 29)

Perhaps the most theologically significant Western variant appears in the Apostolic Decree---the Jerusalem Council's ruling on requirements for Gentile believers. The standard text lists four prohibitions: "things polluted by idols, sexual immorality, things strangled, and blood" (Acts 15:20, 29).

The Western Text, however, presents a dramatically different version. It omits "things strangled" and adds the Golden Rule in negative form: "whatever you do not want done to yourselves, don't do to others." This transformation shifts the decree from ritual prohibitions to moral principles.

This variant has profound implications for understanding Jewish-Gentile relations in early Christianity. The standard reading suggests Gentiles needed to observe certain Jewish food laws, while the Western reading reframes the requirements as fundamentally ethical rather than ritual. Early church fathers like Irenaeus and Tertullian cite the Western form, suggesting its wide circulation in the second century.[16]

Peter's Prison Escape (Acts 12:10)

In Peter's dramatic prison escape, the Western Text adds a small but vivid detail. After the angel leads Peter out of prison, the standard text simply states they "went along one street; and immediately the angel left him." The Western Text specifies they "went down the seven steps and went along one street."

This concrete detail---seven steps descending from the prison---has the ring of eyewitness testimony. It is difficult to explain why a scribe would invent such a specific architectural feature, leading some scholars to suggest this detail might preserve an authentic tradition about the Jerusalem prison.[17]

Paul's Teaching Schedule (Acts 19:9)

When Paul begins teaching in the hall of Tyrannus in Ephesus, the Western Text adds a specific timeframe: "from the fifth hour until the tenth" (approximately 11:00 AM to 4:00 PM). This detail, absent from standard texts, offers insight into Paul's daily routine during his extended Ephesian ministry.

This time reference suggests Paul taught during the hot midday hours when workplaces typically closed for siesta---maximizing the use of the rental space and allowing working people to attend his teachings. This practical detail illuminates Paul's missionary strategy and work ethic, providing a window into the logistics of his urban ministry.[18]

Ethiopian Eunuch's Confession (Acts 8:37)

One of the best-known Western variants is the Ethiopian eunuch's confession of faith. In most modern Bibles, after the eunuch asks, "What prevents me from being baptized?" (8:36), the text jumps directly to his baptism in verse 38. The Western Text, however, includes Philip's requirement of faith and the eunuch's confession: "And Philip said, 'If you believe with all your heart, you may.' And he answered and said, 'I believe that Jesus Christ is the Son of God.'"

This variant, preserved in the King James Version but relegated to footnotes in most modern translations, reflects early baptismal practice requiring explicit confession before baptism. Its absence from major manuscripts leads most scholars to consider it a later addition, yet it preserves an authentic tradition about early Christian baptismal requirements.[19]

Theological Tendencies in the Western Text

Beyond individual variants, the Western Text displays consistent theological tendencies that reveal how early Christian communities interpreted and adapted the apostolic tradition. Three patterns stand out: anti-Judaic bias, treatment of women, and enhanced apostolic authority.

Anti-Judaic Bias

Eldon Epp's 1966 study first systematically documented the Western Text's tendency to heighten anti-Jewish elements in Acts. This pattern appears consistently across multiple passages:

In Acts 13:45, the standard text states that the Jews "were filled with jealousy" when they saw Paul's successful preaching. The Western Text intensifies this, saying they were "filled with jealousy and spoke against those things spoken by Paul, contradicting and blaspheming." The additional phrase emphasizes Jewish opposition and attributes blasphemy to them.

Similarly, in Acts 24:9, the standard text states that the Jews "joined in the attack" against Paul. The Western Text adds that they did so "with shouting," painting a more volatile picture of Jewish hostility.

These patterns reflect tensions in second-century Christianity as Jewish and Christian communities increasingly defined themselves against each other. The Western Text preserves evidence of how some Christian communities interpreted apostolic history through the lens of growing Jewish-Christian separation.[20]

Treatment of Women

The Western Text shows interesting patterns in how it treats women in the early church narrative:

In Acts 1:14, the standard text mentions the disciples gathering with "the women and Mary the mother of Jesus." The Western Text specifies "with their wives and children," potentially domesticating the more ambiguous "women" of the original.

Acts 17:4 describes converts in Thessalonica, including "a great many of the devout Greeks and not a few of the leading women." The Western Text rearranges this to "a great many of the devout and Greeks and not a few of the wives of prominent men," potentially diminishing the status of the women by changing the reference of "prominent" to their husbands. A similar change occurs in Acts 17:12 where the Alexandrian text, "Many of them therefore believed, with not a few Greek women of high standing as well as men," highlights women believers before the men, in comparison to the Western Text, "and many of the Greeks and men and women of high standing believed," which places the men before women and groups them together as one entity of high standing.

Perhaps most significantly, in Acts 17:34, the Western Text omits Damaris from the list of named Athenian converts who joined Paul. This erasure of a named female convert reflects a tendency to minimize women's prominence in the early Christian mission.

These patterns suggest some Western Text communities were adjusting the Acts narrative to align more closely with conservative Greco-Roman gender expectations.[21]

Enhanced Apostolic Authority

A third consistent pattern in the Western Text is its enhancement of apostolic authority and effectiveness:

In Acts 16:4-5, the Western Text adds that Paul and Timothy delivered the Jerusalem decrees "with all boldness to everyone, preaching the Lord Jesus Christ along with delivering the letter," heightening their apostolic authority.

Acts 28:31, describing Paul's house arrest in Rome, adds in the Western Text that he taught "without hindrance, saying that this Jesus is the Christ, the Son of God, through whom the whole world will be judged." This expansion amplifies Paul's Christological proclamation and adds eschatological emphasis.

These enhancements reflect how early Christian communities viewed apostolic leaders. The expansions emphasize apostolic boldness, Christological clarity, miracle-working power, and authority over spiritual competitors.[22]

Liturgical and Pastoral Context

The Western Text of Acts was not created in a vacuum but emerged within living communities of faith. Many of its distinctive features reflect the practical needs of early Christian communities as they used Scripture in worship, catechesis, and pastoral care.

Liturgical Elements Preserved

Several Western Text additions seem to preserve liturgical formulations that developed in early Christian communities. The expanded confession of the Ethiopian eunuch in Acts 8:37 ("I believe that Jesus Christ is the Son of God") closely resembles baptismal confessions attested in early church documents like the Apostolic Tradition. This suggests the Western Text sometimes incorporates elements from worship practices into the biblical narrative itself.[23]

Similarly, in Acts 15:20,29, the addition of the negative Golden Rule ("do not do to others what you would not have done to you") reflects a common ethical formulation used in early Christian instruction. This wisdom saying, with roots in Jewish tradition, likely played a role in moral teaching for new converts.

Pastoral Clarifications

Many Western expansions address pastoral concerns that would have arisen in early communities. When narratives lacked clear motivations or seemed to leave important questions unanswered, the Western Text often supplies clarifications that would help teachers and preachers explain the text to their congregations.

For example, in Acts 18:8, the standard text simply states that Crispus, the synagogue ruler, "believed in the Lord together with his entire household." The Western Text adds that Crispus did so "when he heard the teaching," connecting his conversion explicitly to Paul's preaching and providing a clearer model of faith response to teaching.[24]

Theories About the Western Text's Origin

Scholars have proposed numerous theories to explain the distinctive characteristics of the Western Text of Acts. Each theory has significant implications for how we understand both the text's authority and the process of scriptural formation.

Blass' Two-Edition Theory

In the late 19th century, German philologist Friedrich Blass proposed that Luke himself produced two different editions of Acts---an earlier, rougher draft (represented by the Western Text) and a later, more polished version (the Alexandrian text). This theory of "author-published variants" suggested both text forms had authorial authority.

Blass noted that many Western expansions display intimate knowledge of Palestinian geography and Jewish customs that would be unlikely additions by later Gentile scribes. He argued that Luke first published a draft for Theophilus (the Western version) and later refined it for wider circulation (the Alexandrian version).

While this theory elegantly explains the Western Text's coherence and early origin, it struggles to account for inconsistencies between Western witnesses and the lack of similar dual editions for Luke's Gospel.[25]

Ropes' and Metzger's Secondary Expansion View

James Hardy Ropes and later Bruce Metzger championed the view that became mainstream during the 20th century: the Western Text represents a secondary expansion of an earlier, more concise original. According to this theory, the Western additions result from scribal embellishment, harmonization, and incorporation of oral traditions.

This perspective attributes Western expansions to a creative but unauthorized editorial process that, while historically interesting, lacks authorial authority. Metzger particularly emphasized how Western readings often smooth out difficulties and add explanatory material in ways characteristic of scribal activity rather than authorial composition.[26]

Strange's Unfinished Acts Theory

James F. Strange proposed that the Western Text's distinctive features result from Luke having left Acts in an unfinished state. According to this theory, the text circulated in various draft forms with multiple versions of certain passages, which were then integrated differently by various scribal traditions.

This perspective accounts for the early date and apparent authority of some Western readings while explaining their uneven distribution across witnesses.[27]

Implications for Understanding Scripture Formation

The Western Text of Acts profoundly impacts how we understand the formation of Scripture and the nature of biblical authority. Its distinctive features challenge simplistic models of textual development and invite a more nuanced understanding of how God worked through human communities to preserve the apostolic witness.

Illuminating Canonical Development

The Western Text provides a window into the process of canonical development. Rather than Scripture emerging fully formed and immediately fixed, we see evidence of a more gradual process of stabilization. The coexistence of different textual traditions suggests that early Christians recognized authority in the apostolic message rather than in a specific wording.

This perspective helps us understand canonization not simply as the selection of books but also as the gradual settling of their textual form. The Western Text shows this process was more complex and community-based than sometimes imagined.[28]

Oral Tradition and Written Text

The Western Text reveals the ongoing interplay between oral and written tradition in early Christianity. Many Western expansions appear to incorporate explanatory material or traditional interpretations that likely circulated orally alongside the written text.

This suggests we should understand early Christian texts not as isolated documents but as written expressions of a broader tradition that included both oral and written elements. The Western Text often makes explicit connections that would have been implicit within the community's shared understanding.[29]

Early Christian Views of Scripture

Through the Western Text, we glimpse how early Christians viewed scriptural authority. The freedom to clarify, expand, and adapt texts suggests they located authority primarily in the apostolic message rather than in a fixed verbal formulation. Scripture functioned as a living tradition that could be reverently adapted to address new contexts while preserving its essential content.

This doesn't mean early Christians were careless with their texts. The substantial agreement across all textual traditions in essential content demonstrates their commitment to faithful transmission. But it does suggest they understood faithful preservation in terms of meaning and message rather than verbatim reproduction.[30]

Practical Applications for Ministry

Textual variants need not be confined to scholarly footnotes---they can become powerful teaching tools that enrich biblical instruction and deepen faith. Here's how to incorporate Western Text insights into your ministry.

Addressing Variants in Teaching Contexts

When approaching Western Text variants in sermons or Bible studies, consider these principles:

For example, when discussing the Apostolic Decree in Acts 15, you might say, "Some of the earliest manuscripts frame these requirements differently, focusing more on ethical principles than food laws. This helps us understand the fundamental concerns of the Jerusalem leaders."[31]

Enriching Biblical Teaching Through Variants

Western Text variants offer several ways to enhance biblical instruction [32]:

Strengthening Faith Through Textual Understanding

Far from undermining confidence in Scripture, thoughtful engagement with textual variants can actually strengthen faith by [33]:

Western Text and the Interpretation of Acts

The Western Text of Acts opens a window into the dynamic life of Scripture in the early church. Its expansions, clarifications, and alternative readings aren't mere curiosities but valuable witnesses to how apostolic traditions were received and interpreted by early Christian communities.

Throughout this exploration, we've seen how the Western Text presents a version of Acts that is approximately 8% to 10% longer than our standard text, with additions that often clarify ambiguities, provide vivid details, and occasionally reflect distinct theological emphases. From the Ethiopian eunuch's confession to the modified Apostolic Decree, these variants reveal a text that was actively engaged by early believers as they sought to understand and apply apostolic teaching.

Recent scholarship has transformed our understanding of the Western Text, moving from viewing it as a corruption of an original text to appreciating it as evidence of how Scripture functioned as a living tradition. The evolving text model helps us recognize how various communities contributed to the transmission and interpretation of Acts, creating a textual tradition that preserves valuable insights into early Christian thought.

For those engaged in biblical teaching, these textual traditions offer rich resources that can deepen understanding and enliven instruction. Rather than undermining confidence in Scripture, thoughtful engagement with textual variants demonstrates God's providence in preserving his word through diverse manuscripts and communities.

The Western Text reminds us that Scripture has always been received within communities of faith who actively engaged with its meaning. As you incorporate these insights into your teaching, you participate in this ongoing tradition of faithful interpretation that connects us to believers across the centuries.

FOOTNOTES

[1] Bruce Metzger, A Textual Commentary on the Greek New Testament (Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft, 1994), 222-236, https://www.amazon.com/Textual-Commentary-Greek-Testament-Ancient/dp/1598561642.

[2] D.C. Parker, Codex Bezae: An Early Christian Manuscript and its Text (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), 35-49, https://www.cambridge.org/us/universitypress/subjects/religion/biblical-studies-new-testament/codex-bezae-early-christian-manuscript-and-its-text.

[3] Eldon Epp, "Traditional 'Canons' of New Testament Textual Criticism: Their Value, Validity, and Viability," in The Textual History of the Greek New Testament, eds. K. Wachtel and M.W. Holmes (Atlanta: SBL, 2011), 79-127, https://brill.com/edcollbook/title/20983.

[4] B.F. Westcott and F.J.A. Hort, The New Testament in the Original Greek (Cambridge: Macmillan, 1881), 120-126, https://www.amazon.com/New-Testament-Original-Greek/dp/1602067759.

[5] Eldon Jay Epp, The Theological Tendency of Codex Bezae Cantabrigiensis in Acts (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1966), https://assets.cambridge.org/97805210/20473/frontmatter/9780521020473_frontmatter.pdf.

[6] Jenny Read-Heimerdinger and Josep Rius-Camps, The Message of Acts in Codex Bezae: A Comparison with the Alexandrian Tradition, 4 vols. (London: T&T Clark International, 2004-2009), https://www.bloomsbury.com/us/bezan-text-of-acts-9780826462121/.

[7] Ben Witherington III, The Acts of the Apostles: A Socio-Rhetorical Commentary (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998), 387, https://www.eerdmans.com/9781467429580/the-acts-of-the-apostles/.

[8] C.K. Barrett, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Acts of the Apostles, vol. 2 (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1998), 734-737, https://www.logos.com/product/4157/acts-vol-2.

[9] F. H. A. Scrivener, Bezae Codex Cantabrigiensis (Cambridge: Deighton, Bell, and Co., 1864), ix-x, https://www.amazon.com/Bezae-Codex-Cantabrigiensis-Frederick-Scrivener/dp/B005D2R828.

[10] Craig S. Keener, Acts: An Exegetical Commentary, vol. 3 (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2014), 2503-2504, https://www.bakerpublishinggroup.com/books/acts-an-exegetical-commentary-volume-3/335572.

[11] David C. Parker, An Introduction to the New Testament Manuscripts and Their Texts (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 172-175, https://assets.cambridge.org/97805218/95538/frontmatter/9780521895538_frontmatter.pdf.

[12] Pasi Hyttinen, "Evolving Gamaliel Tradition in Codex Bezae Cantabrigiensis, Acts 5:38-39," Novum Testamentum 61:4 (2019): 386-410, https://helda.helsinki.fi/server/api/core/bitstreams/b1d28eee-c68b-4157-91f1-ffd0a2c3c87c/content.

[13] Kim Haines-Eitzen, Guardians of Letters: Literacy, Power, and the Transmitters of Early Christian Literature (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000), 105-129, https://academic.oup.com/book/49654.

[14] F.J.A. Hort, "Introduction," in The New Testament in the Original Greek, eds. B.F. Westcott and F.J.A. Hort (Cambridge: Macmillan, 1881), 132-139, https://www.amazon.com/Introduction-New-Testament-Original-Greek/dp/0913573949.

[15] Maurice Robinson and William G. Pierpont, The New Testament in the Original Greek: Byzantine Textform (Chilton Book Publishing, 2005), https://www.amazon.com/New-Testament-Original-Greek/dp/0759800774; Klaus Wachtel, "Colwell Revisited: Grouping New Testament Manuscripts," in The New Testament in Early Christianity: Proceedings of the Lille colloquium, July 2000, ed. C.B. Amphoux and J.K. Elliott (Lausanne: Editions du Zebre, 2003), 31-43, https://www.jstor.org/stable/25442490.

[16] Charles H. Talbert, Reading Acts: A Literary and Theological Commentary on the Acts of the Apostles (New York: Crossroad, 1997), 131-135, https://books.google.com/books/about/Reading_Acts.html.

[17] Richard I. Pervo, Acts: A Commentary (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2009), 302-303, https://www.fortresspress.com/store/product/9780800660451/Acts.

[18] Eckhard J. Schnabel, Acts, Zondervan Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2012), 787-788, https://zondervanacademic.com/products/acts1.

[19] F.F. Bruce, The Book of the Acts, New International Commentary on the New Testament (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1988), 177-178, https://www.eerdmans.com/9780802825056/the-book-of-the-acts/.

[20] Eldon Jay Epp, "Anti-Judaic Tendencies in the D-Text of Acts: Forty Years of Conversation," in The Book of Acts as Church History, eds. T. Nicklas and M. Tilly (Berlin: de Gruyter, 2003), 111-146, https://www.amazon.com/Book-Church-History-Apostelgeschichte-Kirchengeschichte/dp/311017717X.

[21] Marg Mowczko, "Anti-Woman Tendencies in Codex Bezae," MargMowczko.com, 2021, https://margmowczko.com/anti-woman-tendencies-in-codex-bezae/.

[22] Mikeal C. Parsons, Acts, Paideia Commentaries on the New Testament (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2008), 366-367, https://bakerpublishinggroup.com/books/acts/279190.

[23] Paul F. Bradshaw, Early Christian Worship (Collegeville, MN: Liturgical Press, 2010), 28-30, https://litpress.org/Products/3366.

[24] Darrell L. Bock, Acts, Baker Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2007), 562-563, https://bakeracademic.com/p/Acts-Darrell-L-Bock/40377.

[25] Friedrich Blass, Acta Apostolorum sive Lucae ad Theophilum liber alter (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1895), 7-29, https://www.amazon.com/Apostolorum-Lucae-Theophilum-Liber-Alter/dp/B07QZL762C.

[26] Bruce M. Metzger, The Text of the New Testament: Its Transmission, Corruption, and Restoration, 4th ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005), 276-277, https://www.amazon.com/Text-New-Testament-Transmission-Restoration/dp/019516122X.

[27] James F. Strange, "The Book of Acts: A History of Interpretation," in Acts in its Ancient Literary Setting, eds. Bruce W. Winter and Andrew D. Clarke (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1993), 20-21, https://www.amazon.com/Ancient-Literary-Setting-First-Century/dp/0802824331.

[28] Harry Y. Gamble, Books and Readers in the Early Church: A History of Early Christian Texts (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1995), 142-144, https://yalebooks.yale.edu/book/9780300069181/books-and-readers-in-the-early-church/.

[29] David Trobisch, The First Edition of the New Testament (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000), 62-65, https://global.oup.com/academic/product/the-first-edition-of-the-new-testament-9780195112405.

[30] William A. Graham, Beyond the Written Word: Oral Aspects of Scripture in the History of Religion (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), 117-118, https://www.cambridge.org/us/universitypress/subjects/religion/religion-general-interest/beyond-written-word-oral-aspects-scripture-history-religion.

[31] Gordon D. Fee and Mark L. Strauss, How to Choose a Translation for All Its Worth (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2007), 110-111, https://zondervanacademic.com/products/how-to-choose-a-translation-for-all-its-worth.

[32] J. Harold Greenlee, Introduction to New Testament Textual Criticism, rev. ed. (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1995), 76-78, https://www.amazon.com/Introduction-New-Testament-Textual-Criticism/dp/0801046440.

[33] Bruce M. Metzger and Bart D. Ehrman, The Text of the New Testament: Its Transmission, Corruption, and Restoration, 4th ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), 315-318, https://global.oup.com/academic/product/the-text-of-the-new-testament-9780195161229.